Notes of a Philosopher the Influence of Tao Te Ching
Andrew Stutts
When exploring ancient Chinese
influential literature the Tao Te Ching
captivates the hearts of many. It is an
enduring Chinese manuscript written over a thousand years ago, purportedly by a
legendary Chinese sage known as Lao-Tzu. This spiritual and philosophical
masterpiece has influenced China and much of East Asia for centuries. The Tao
Te Ching originated Taoism which had a far reaching relationship with and impact
on various areas of not only Chinese but East Asian culture to include
political thought, religion, magic, and philosophy. Throughout the centuries this work has held a
vast array of meanings. When exploring
this work it is captivating to think of why it was created. Was it created to be used as a work of
guidance for governments? Perhaps this
work was meant as a religious doctrine for mass peoples to follow literally or
metaphorically. One will never know for
certain why or who it was created by but one thing is for certain and that is
that this work was extremely progressive thinking for its time. Looking into the meanings behind the
writings, its authorship, and its religious impacts perhaps we will delve into
its purpose.
To begin analyzing the Tao Te Ching and its deep influence on Chinese and East Asian culture its best to first begin with a
comprehension of the title. A definition
of the title facilitates an understanding of the intent, the beauty of this divine
script, and its impact upon humanity. Originally, the book
we know today as Tao Te Ching was simply
called Lao Tzu, after the author’s
name. People used Lao Tzu to refer to both the book and the man legend attributed to
writing it. The most literally
translation of the title of the Tao Te
Ching is “The Classic of the Way and Virtue.” (Chang) However, it is the first word in the title,
Tao, which provides an elucidation to the purpose and aspiration of this incomparable
manuscript. The word Tao is an ambiguous
term. The most common English
translations are “the way”, “the path”, ‘the road”, and “the method”. In the most general sense it is the way of
harmony. According to the Tao Te Ching, to attempt to define Tao
is a contraction in itself because to define Tao one loses its meaning and can
never grasp its concept. This is because
at its heart, the Tao is nonverbal in its fundamental nature and is beyond
language. The Tao must be practiced and not defined. The Tao
Te Ching describes the Tao as emptiness and fullness, fluidity and
continual change. The Tao could be
described as the reality of existence beyond illusions, as everything and
nothing. In the Tao Te Ching, Tao is described as the entirety, totality, or sum of
the universe. (Wheeler)
To fully appreciated and savor the
mystery of the Tao Te Ching its
authorship should also be examined and reviewed. The writing of the Tao Te Ching is credited to a legendary man named Lao-Tzu. Lao-Tzu could be considered the first Taoist
philosopher or the founder of this system of thinking. The suffix Tzu means “master” or “teacher”
and the word Lao means “Old man”. The
meaning of Lao-Tzu’s name leads some scholars to believe that he was not a
historical figure at all but, in fact an archetypical personification of wisdom
in folklore. (Chan) Normally, when a
person of the spiritual or philosophical magnitude of Lao-Tzu actually lived we
know the dates of their birth and death.
Case in point, we know that Confucius and Buddha were born about 2500
years ago. However, little is known
about the historical life of Lao-Tzu.
According to Taoist myth he never really died but ascended into heaven just
as Jesus is purported to do in Christian scriptures. (Chang)
In one tradition it is believed that Lao-Tzu’s actual name was Li Erh
and that he was born in the ancient Chinese state of Ch’u in the late 6th
century. (Chan) In any case, if Lao-Tzu was indeed a real
person he was more than likely an older contemporary of Confucius and born in
the same era as Confucius and Gautama Siddhartha, the historical Buddha. (Chan)(Chang) (Schumacher) Moreover,
his birth preceded both Confucius and Buddha in the same age. Just one hundred years separated these
sagacious men that inspired influential and inspirationally impacting belief
system. Not much is known for certain
about the historical Lao-Tzu except his philosophy shared similarities with
Confucius’s and that they lived during a period of time, between 560 and 300
B.C.E, that many great sages or historical figures were born. (Chang)
Furthermore,
by all accounts Lao-Tzu worked for the majority of his life in the court of the
Chou dynasty. He lived during a time of
unremitting warfare, human suffering, and an oppressively uncaring
government. Therefore, it is said that
he eventual grew disenchanted and disillusioned by society. Lao-Tzu chose to forsake civilized living and
lead a life as meditative recluse in the wilderness. Legend has it that as he departed
civilization, on the back of his water-buffalo, a gatekeeper who had always
been enamored by his teachings refused to let him leave the borders of the
kingdom until he recorded his teachings.
This legend also claims Lao-Tzu wrote the entire Tao Te Ching in one sitting, gave it to the gatekeeper for
posterity, and left human society for good. (Chan)
It is quite plausible that the Tao Te Ching, similar to much of
Confucius’s work, was initially intended for Chinese rulers as well the common
man. The Tao Te Ching can be interpreted as a guide to good government as
much as a philosophical document. Many
consider Lao-Tzu to be the world’s first libertarian. The American
Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition, 2000 defines
Libertarians in the following manner: “One who advocates maximizing individual
rights and minimizing the role of the state.
Libertarians favor freedom and oppose government action to promote
either equality or order.” (IHS) Additionally, according to Libertarianism: A Primer by David Boaz,
Free Press, 1997: “Libertarianism is the view that
each person has the right to live his life in any way he chooses so long as he
respects the equal rights of others. Libertarians defend each person's right to
life, liberty, and property-rights that people have naturally, before
governments were created. In the libertarian view, all human relationships
should be voluntary; the only actions that should be forbidden by law are those
that involve the initiation of force against those who have not themselves used
force-actions like murder, rape, robbery, kidnapping, and fraud.” (IHS)
Consequently, this was where Lao Tzu’s ideology fundamentally differed
from Confucius’s. Contrasting Confucius,
who was a fervent advocate for a social order, Lao-tzu envisioned a revolutionary
liberal and noninterventionist form of government. Lao-Tzu believed that society should exist to
promote the benefit and contentment of the individual. Likewise he believed the functions of social
institutions should be decreased or done away with if they did not provide for
the liberty of the individual. Noted
libertarian political philosopher Murray N. Rothbard (1926-1995) provided a
perceptive insight into the possible political ideology of Lao-Tzu in his 1990
article Concepts of the Role of
Intellectuals in Social Change Toward Laissez Faire in The Journal of Libertarian Studies. Mr.
Rothbard descried Lao-Tzu in the following manner: “To the individualist
Lao-tzu, government, with its ‘laws and regulations more numerous than the
hairs of an ox,’ was a vicious oppressor of the individual, and ‘more to be
feared than fierce tigers.’” (Rothbard)
Lao-Tzu was definitely not a proponent of what today we would refer to
as big government. In the Tao Te Ching Lao-Tzu said: “The more
taboos and prohibitions there are, the poorer the people become. The more deadly weapons there are, the more
our fears turn us numb. When craftiness
spreads far, the more bizarre what is done, The stricter the laws are, the less
robbers run.” (Tao Te Ching Verse 57) These
passages in the Tao Te Ching strongly suggest that Lao-Tzu preferred less government
involvement and was probably the world’s first libertarian philosopher. Lao-Tzu’s theories on government, however,
were too radically for his time. Consequently,
it is no wonder that Confucian ideas wielded the greatest influence on politics
in a tyrannically authoritative China and East Asia. (Rothbard)
Although
the Tao Te Ching had an influence
over Confucianism, Taoism was considerably less rigid. Taoism is not confined to dogmatic rules,
definitions and empty language. Instead
an instinctive and non-resisting means of attaining harmony with nature is
pursued. In Taoism wu wei or flexible
non-action is emphasized over inflexible and unyielding action. Whereas wu yu are committed attempts to
change human behavior for the better by preventing the evil desires and
inclination of humanity in an unbending set of laws. Fundamentally, Confucianism was not at odds
with either the concept wu wei or wu yu.
However, Confucianism does put forward that attentive thought is
essential in making decisions rather than rigidly following rules like that are
advocated by wu yu. In this regard its
philosophy is similar to Taoism but it discards irrationalism of Taoism. Likewise, Taoist philosophy disregarded the
Confucian thought that traditions are vital in their own rite. Taoism also rejects the view that humanity is
inherently evil. Taoism has no set
belief on humanity’s inherent nature other than we are what we are. In Taoist thought it is useless to always
make people behave in a prescribe way.
Additionally, those who act righteously out of fear aren’t really
righteous after all. Taoist do not dwell
over the fine points of moral principles.
Instead they live life intuitively and moral principles become instinctive
as a matter of course.
Lao-Tzu’s
original Taoist philosophy from the Tao
Te Ching was destined to have less influence on politics then Confucian
ideals. Instead it became infused with
mystical beliefs and formed into a religion.
A Taoist named Chang Tao-ling founded Taoism as a religion around the
150 B.C.E. The mystical trappings of
Taoism were particularly alluring during this time. After the end of the late Chou and early Han
periods, Chinese culture separated into three kingdoms and this breakdown of
order left a spiritual void in the land that made this blend of mysticism in
Taoism particularly appealing during this time.
Also, by this time the old nature religions in China had been nearly
eliminated by fervent Confucianism, and that void was filled by two contending
yet well-matched belief systems, Taoism and Buddhism. This was the catalyst that transformed Taoism
from the unbridled philosophical spirit of the Tao and fashioned it into a religious
form. (Wheeler)
Many western religious schools of
thought stress a duality of thought.
That is to say they make clear distinctions between good and evil. Furthermore, they require devotees to accept
the good and reject the evil. Taoism
viewed these principle characters as two extremes of one complete
entirety. Advantage or good did not lie
at one end of the continuum, but through carefully maintaining balance and
harmony between the two sides. This idea
is often expressed with the symbolism of Yin and Yang. Yin and Yang represent the primary and differing
forces in nature or the universe. “Yin
originally meant ‘sunless’ or ‘northern.’
It was associated with darkness, femininity, emptiness, coolness, and
passivity. The opposite state was Yang,
which originally meant ‘sunny’ or ‘southern.’” (Wheeler)
Yang was related to light, fullness, masculinity, heat, and action. Upon initial review these qualities seem to
contend with each other. However, in the
Taoist philosophy this conflict is only a superficial and a false image of
reality. The reality is both conditions
of being need each other to make up the wholeness of actuality. From the Taoist viewpoint wanting, grief,
pain, and sorrow are indispensably essential for the qualities of
gratification, joy, pleasure, and happiness to exist. Likewise, poor health and vitality are the
same experience; they are just at the extreme ends of that equivalent totality
of experience. Likewise both masculinity
and femininity are also matching. That
is to say both are the same form of existence but that they are expressed as
complete opposites. Furthermore, all
things appear and are expressed in this illusive manner. However, according to Taoist beliefs when one
recognizes that these divisions are mere illusion and that the extremes are
impermanent, they are in harmony with the Tao or way. Cycling is the normal order of the universe
and nature. Therefore, struggling against or attempting not to go through these
cycles, one cannot attune themselves with the rhythms of the universe or
nature. The primary goal of all Taoist
was and is to blend and unify with the universal way. Taoist considers any efforts
to prescribe with dogmatically rigid methods or institutions of discipline as
pretentious and transient. Instead of
accepting only one of the two extremes of the whole, the Taoist sage sought equilibrium,
harmony, and concord with all things. (Wheeler)
The Tao Te Ching teaches that when the need for balance of Yin and Yang
is recognized conflicting against the natural order of things ends. When this occurs tranquility and
enlightenment through non-action or wu wei is attained. It entails doing away with convoluted or unnecessarily
elaborate tactics to better the world and to quit striving for self perfection. Additionally, it requires one to cease a
calculated temporal existence and to live life spontaneously, flowing from one
moment to another. This is the path that
leads the way to oneness and supreme elucidation. Following this path makes one skilled at
existing instinctively and effortlessly instead of becoming ensnared in the
process of desire and struggle. This
path of least resistance advocated in the Tao
Te Ching always leads back to balance and harmony. (Wheeler)
It was during the Han period that
Taoism started to emphasize elements of magic. The Taoist teachings intended to
improve vitality and life by living in harmony with nature’s changing
balance. There were myths about Taoist
master that learned to lengthen their lives and even become immortal. These Taoist masters also supposedly had
superhuman abilities such flying and invisibility. Much of this was interpreted from literal
readings of the Tao Te Ching that
were probably meant to be read symbolically.
As a result a multitude of Taoist alchemist experimented with
concoctions to make men immortal. Part
of the magical system of Taoism emphasized imagery and complex symbolism and
was derived from poetry. The color red
played a great role in this symbolism and imagery. The sacred color red symbolized the
alchemical furnace in Taoist magic.
Also, it was representative of the beautiful red-robed patron goddess of
internal alchemy in Taoist magic. The
Manchurian crane was another frequent symbol seen in Taoist magic. The Manchurian crane image, with the red spot
of divinity on its crown, was representative of longevity. Certain material had special relevance to
Taoist magic as well. For example, Cinnabar,
a red mixture of mercury and sulfur, was believed to contain magical properties
for its ability to be transformed into a silvery liquid and then back into a
solid. Furthermore, gold was cherished
by Taoist but not for the same reason modern people do today. It was valued and celebrated as one of the
few materials recognized as imperishable.
Jade was also experimented with because it was believed to fend off
decay. (Wheeler)
Taoist
magicians even experimented with their own bodies. They tried a variety of exercises to build up
their chi or life-force. This included
but was not limited to a number of yoga like calisthenics and stretching movements.
They also created and took various magical elixirs. Many prescribed to precise dietary requirements
such as not eating cereals and grains. Wang
Ch'ung (circa 100 CE) provided this description of the Taoist magicians:
"They dose themselves with the germ of gold and jade, eat the finest fruit
of the purple polypore fungus. By eating
what is germinal their bodies are lightened, and so they are capable of spiritual
transcendence." (Wheeler) When
this spiritual transcendence was attained by an understanding of the Tao, that
one was known as a hsien. Hsien means
“feathered folk” and describes angelic beings with wings or feathers. Images of hsien featured prominently in art
of the Chou period. In fact, in the
Taoist text Chuang-Tzu there are depicted as white-skinned, delicate
superhuman beings: "These are divine persons dwelling there, whose flesh
and skin resemble ice and snow, soft and delicate like sequestered
girl-children; they do not eat the five cereals; they suck the wind and drink
the dew; they mount on clouds and vapors and drive the flying dragons--thus
they rove beyond the four seas" (Wheeler)
The
theory of Yin and Yang initially expressed in the Tao Te Ching eventually became connected
and associated with a sophisticated system of divination. The primary tool for divination was a book
named the I-Ching, or the Book of Changes. In this book, yang was represented by
continuous lines and yin by broken lines in a hexagram. Random drawings in sets of six were interpreted
using the I-Ching book as a divinatory tool for Chinese courts. This manual for divination used more common
language to talk about the intangible cycles of humanity’s experience. This magical system of Taoism tried to make
the abstract ideas of the Tao more accessible and to provide for useful and
tangible outcomes. (Wheeler)
These magical beliefs of ancient and
even some modern Taoist appear peculiar to the western observer. However, one must consider that this is the result
of taking the Tao Te Ching and other
Taoist writings literally, instead of reflecting on the wisdom of its
quintessential elements. For the
greatest benefit to the individual and society, the Tao Te Ching should be read with an attempt to grasp the ethical or
spiritual lesson imbedded in the text. (Wheeler)
The
final important feature one should note when reading the Tao Te Ching is
how significant its tenets were in influencing Chinese art, martial traditions,
poetry, literature, and philosophy. The designs of Feng-Shui architecture is one
example of the influence of Taoist thought on Chinese art. Additionally, Taoist ideas sparked from the Tao Te Ching greatly influenced the
martial arts in not only China but much of East Asia. Tai Chi, a martial art as well means of self
cultivation and attunement with the Tao, is just one example. Tai Chi has been practiced in China for
thousand of years and has its philosophical foundation grounded in the Tao Te Ching. Furthermore, China has exchange cultural
ideas with Japan for centuries. This is
especially true concerning their martial traditions. The names given to various modern Japanese
marital arts are indicative of the influence of the Tao Te Ching and Taoist philosophy.
They all include “do” the Japanese word for “Tao” or “way”. Consider the name of the following modern
Japanese martial arts: Karate-do (way of the empty hand), Judo (the gentle or
yielding way), Kendo (the way of the sword), and Aikido (the way of harmonizing
mind and spirit). Finally, the Tao Te Ching and Taoist philosophy
influenced China’s and notably the world’s greatest book on military strategy, Sun-Tzu’s
The Art of War. (Wheeler)
Of
all China’s ancient literature none have captivated the hearts and minds of so
many as the Tao Te Ching. The Tao
Te Ching is a timeless Chinese classic written over thousand years ago as
legend would have it by the wise folk hero Lao-Tzu. This work of genius has inspired the people
of China and much of East Asia for ages.
The Tao Te Ching engendered Taoism which in turn had an association
with or wielded influence on multiple facets of Chinese and East Asian thought to include politics, religion, magic, and
philosophy. Through the ages this work
has provided an incalculable collection of insights. When investigating this work it is fascinating
to ponder its purpose. Was it intended as
a work of guidance for governments? Possibly
it was created for religious use, a doctrine for mass peoples to follow
literally or metaphorically. One will
never know for certain the purpose of the Tao
Te Ching or who created it but one thing is definite and that is that this masterpiece
was exceedingly advanced wisdom for its time.
After taking a glimpse into the meanings behind the writings, its
authorship, and its religious impacts perhaps we have a better understanding of
its purpose and benefit to humanity.
Works Cited
Dale,
Ralph A. The Tao Te Ching A New Translation & Commentary. New York,
NY: Barnes & Noble Publishing, Inc., 2005. Print.
Chan, Alan.
"Laozi." Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Standford University,
2007. Web. 4 Oct. 2009. <http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/>.
Wheeler,
L. Kip. "The Tao and Taoism." Dr. Wheeler's Website. N.p., 25
Aug. 2009. Web. 9 Oct. 2009.
<http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/chinese_taoism.html>.
Chang,
Henry. "Tao Te Ching I - Introduction." Web. 9 Oct. 2009.
<http://www.taopractice.org/dragonfly/3/pdf/01-TaoTeChing-01-IntroTaoTeChingI.pdf>.
Schumacher,
Mark. "Shaka (The Historical Buddha)." Buddhist-artwork.com.
N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Oct. 2009. <http://www.buddhist-artwork.com/statues-buddhism/shaka-nyorai-historical-buddha-statuary.html>.
IHS,. "What
is Libertarian? ." Advancing Liberty - Advancing Careers. Institute
for Humane Studies At George Mason University , n.d. Web. 9 Oct. 2009.
<http://www.theihs.org/ContentDetails.aspx?id=626>.
Rothbard
, Murray N. "The Ancient Chinese Libertarian Tradition." Mises
Daily by Murray N. Rothbard. Ludwig von Mises Institute, 5 Dec. 2005. Web.
9 Oct. 2009. <http://mises.org/story/1967>.
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