A Study and Analysis of the Nibelungenlied and Women’s Roles in Northern Europe
The
Purpose of this essay is to provide a study and an analysis of The Nibelungenlied and women’s roles in
Northern Europe. An interdisciplinary
view and approach shall be used when providing this analysis. The
Nibelungenlied will be discussed from the view point of following three
disciplines; history, religion, and gender studies. This paper will investigate the way women’s
roles are portrayed in both The
Nibelungenlied and The Saga of the
Volsungs and the religious cultural paradigms that influenced both. The focus will be narrowed to the discussion
of Germanic people of Europe in the 13th Century and prior that
inhabited the lands that now make up modern day Germany, Great Britain, and
Scandinavia, to include Iceland. The
case will be made that the role of women in Northern Pagan Europe was one of
relevant power, influence, and status.
The argument that social norms of the Northern European Heathen never
completely disappeared shall be supported.
In summary, how women exerted their influence in both Pagan and
Christianized Northern Europe will be discussed.
The Nibelungenlied is
the central text in this essay.
Therefore, it is necessary to provide the background and historical
context of this literary work. Providing
this description will build a foundation to the central them of this essay. Finally, this foundational explanation will
give clarity to readers unfamiliar with this work.
The Nibelungenlied is
a German epic poem from the Middle-Ages and is one the most celebrated heroic
epics of German Medieval literature. It
was written by an unknown author in the thirteenth century in rhymed poetic
form for performance at court in Austria.
(Napierkowski) The title
translates as “Song of the Nibelungs.”
“Nibelungen” is the plural form of “Nibelung”. The “Nibelung” is a dynasty conquered by the
hero of the story, Siegfried. The German
word “lied” translates to “lay” which means song, poem, or lyric. However, “linguistic studies and historical
references date the poem’s composition to sometime between 1190 and 1204, with
the year 1203 being cited traditionally.” (Krstovic´) Furthermore, “Its
literary roots reach back to the Vikings and Scandinavia, possibly to the ninth
century, but some scholars believe that the ultimate source was Germany and
that the tale spread northward before it came back home in altered form.” (Krstovic´)
A
fascinating fact about the Nibelungenlied
is that it mixes elements of fiction and history. The Nibelungenlied
and its legendary sources survived in oral form long before it was ever written
down. There is great deal of information
known concerning the historical context of the poem and the literary sources it
derived from. In the Nibelungenlied, there is a combination
of elements from many different historical, legendary, and mythological
tales. The legend of the Nibelungs arose
from the historical destruction on the Burgundian kingdom on the Rhine River by
the Huns around the year 437.
Furthermore, various characters in the Nibelungenlied have some historical basis. For example, King Etzel is the historical
Attila the Hun who interestingly enough is treated as another Germanic King as
opposed to a foreign invader. This is
probably due to the fact that the poem altered and combined legends when it was
first written down for a medieval audience. (Napierkowski)
The
reason why the Nibelungenlied has enjoyed much popularity over the centuries is
for its literary techniques, adventurous qualities, and complex characters. The
Nibelungenlied epic honors the triumphs, exploits, and battles of several
heroic figures. Furthermore, it includes
elements of the romance genre, tales of knights, courtly behavior, and
chivalry. (Napierkowski) The
Nibelungenlied encompasses Germany’s ancient heroic songs, the fall of the
Burgundian Empire, and the courtly romance tradition of twelfth-and
thirteen-century Europe. The Nibelungenlied message to its audience
is uncertain and is hotly debate by scholars.
This story of honor, murder and revenge does not seem to have a clearly
defined moral message. However, it does
explore the nature of loyalty, honor, and what constitutes a tragedy. The
poem’s extensive appeal is probably due to fitting equally well with many
interpretations. (Krstovic´)
Northern
European culture as with many cultures had an oral tradition extending back
into pre-history. The religion of the Heathens
or Pagans of Northern Europe did not have an unbroken line of transmission as
with the Judea-Christian religions.
However, the Pagan people of Northern Europe shared a core of common
customs and beliefs prior to the Christianization of Europe. This common culture was linked together by a strong
oral tradition. Even after the “official
Christianization of the Germanic lands” remnants of Heathen customs and beliefs
survived for centuries in scattered folktales, charms, and folk customs. One could argue that many of these fragments
can still be observed in modern western society. Nonetheless, many legends of Heathen heroes
were reworked to suite the Christian mindset that was encroaching upon
Europe. The 13th Century
German epic the Nibelungenlied, which
the main source for this paper, is a typical example. As previous mentioned this is a courtly
retelling of the Saga of the Volsungs
, only distilled of its Pagan elements to suite an audience with budding
Christian sensibilities. (Gundarsson)
The
oral tradition of Northern Europe evolved into an art form called skaldcraft,
in which poets memorized epic tales of legend and history. These epic poems were recorded in Norse
Sagas, written in prose narratives, in Iceland and Scandinavia in the 12th
and 13th centuries. The word “saga”
is Old Norse in origin and related the Old Norse word “segja”, “to say” meaning
“what is said, or told”. The time period
covered in most Sagas is from approximately 930 to 1050 C.E., with most being
written between 1190 to 1320 C.E.
(Gundarsson)
It was
in Iceland that the single largest body of lore that provides a glimpse of
pre-Christian customs and beliefs was composed.
Some 150-200 years after their conversion the Icelanders took an active
interest in the stories and history of their forbearers, recording both
historical events and legends in what is commonly referred to as Sagas. The individual that was most notable in this
endeavor was Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241).
This man was a prominent politician of his day as well a historian and a
skaldic poet. It is also worth noting
that Sturluson was highly educated in Classical and Christian mythology. Sturluson’s main goal was to ensure skaldic
poetry was preserved. He is best known
for the Prose Edda which is a reference book of sorts for Norse Pagan religious
tales and an instructional text on skaldcraft.
Moreover, the Icelandic Sagas can be considered the most reliable source
of its kind when studying the social paradigms of pre-Christian Europe. This is due to Iceland’s remote location and
its population being the last Germanic people of Europe to convert to
Christianity. Furthermore, there was
less pressure or influence from the clergy when these oral legends were recorded
in Sagas. (Gundarsson)
The
exact occurrences in any given Saga cannot be, with very few exceptions,
thought of as perfectly historical.
However, as Jill Fortney said, in her work If She Says Yes or Is Silent: A New Interpretation of Female Marital
Consent in the Settlement Period in Iceland as Revealed Through the Family
Sagas, they can be considered “realistic”.
Fortney further explains that the “social world described in the Sagas
is possible as determined by sociological and anthropological research of
societies at similar levels of development”.
However, what lends sagas there significant credence or legitimacy is
that they have a foundation in a strong oral tradition. Most scholars would agree that the sagas are
based on a solid oral tradition.
Furthermore, there is strong evidence that Sagas were given equal
importance to law. This is demonstrated
by the care in which both were handed down.
Therefore, this paper relies on the sagas, to include the Nibelungenlied, when supporting its
positions and make numerous references to them. (Fortney)
Sagas
are useful as an indirect source for religious practice, beliefs, and customs. An example can be seen in Snorri Sturluson’s Heimskringla. In one part of this saga he describes the
rituals Odin established when he came to the people of Scandinavia. This account not only detailed ritual
sacrifice but also instructions for honoring the dead. This saga like others can be compared to
other written accounts and archaeological sources, which support each
other. Burial places are acknowledgeable
evidence of religious customs and are invaluable source concerning the customs,
beliefs, and societal norms unique to a group of people. In light of this fact, the Sagas should be
given no less credibility than other religious texts when detailing the customs
of a group of people during the period of time being studied. They should receive no more scrutiny in this
regard than the religious texts such as the Bible, Torah, or Koran because they
lack codification. (Gundarsson)
The
religious beliefs of Northern European Heathens were filled with female
beings. In the Sagas, there were not
only goddesses but giantesses, elves, nornes (similar to the fates in Greek
mythology), and Valkyries. These
supernatural female beings played a major role in Norse Pagan cosmology and
myths. In addition to being revered,
they were significant forces in the shaping of events. The argument can be made that this is a reflection
of Norse societal customs as a whole.
For what is religion but a reflection of a society’s values and norms?
Compare
this to the original Judea-Christian model from the Middle-East. In this religious-societal model women played
a minor and subjective role. Furthermore,
in the Judea-Christian cosmology feminism is lacking if present at all. The one Creator god is assumed to be
masculine in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
In Christianity, the Father, the Son, and Holy Ghost trinity are absent of
female personas. This is true in all
denominations of Christianity regardless of views. In fact, one would be hard press to find even
a name of an angel with a feminine name.
The only reverence for a feminine personality seems to be for Marry the
mother of Jesus. However, this
reverence, normally associated with Catholicism, was obviously influenced by
Goddess worship from pre-Christianized Europe.
However, this reverence for the mother was not a cultural norm in the
original Christian-Judea model from the Middle-East.
This
comparison can not only be seen between divine and semi-divine beings in both the
Judea-Christian and Pagan religious models but also in its heroines. In Judea-Christianity heroines exert their
influence very passively in a male dominated society. However, Norse society has numerous examples
in its Sagas of women taken an active role.
A prime example is Brynhilde not accepting a male suitor as a husband
unless they best her in a contest of strength and athleticism. Furthermore, it is astounding that she
wielded the power to put to death the suitors that failed this challenge. You would be hard press to find a parallel in
Christian myth. Moreover, the examples
of the female warrior are not only present in western history and literature
but also deeply entrenched in the western psyche despite the influence of
Christianity. However, the paradigm of
the female warrior is completely absent in the Judea-Christian model.
The
social paradigm of the submissive female and in a male dominated society was an
alien concept to the Heathen of pre-Christianized Northern Europe. I believe it is no coincidence that the western
nations of the world have led the way in women’s rights and liberation. The equal and relevant status of woman is a
deeply entrenched cultural norm of western society reaching far back into
pre-history. Furthermore, in my opinion It
was inevitable that the western nations would eventually return to its natural
cultural traditions.
To
support this view Let’s look at gender roles in the Viking Age. A woman’s role was more multifunctional in
the Viking Age society. In society
they wielded power in some areas and lacked it in others. Furthermore, they exercised this power in a
multitude of ways. Much of what we know about women’s roles in Viking Age
society comes from Norse Sagas and these sagas give us the most vivid
description. Take the legend of Valkyries. Was there any factual basis? It is known historical fact that women have
taken up arms in many cultures. However,
the legends of semi-divine Valkyries and mortal shield maidens would lead one
to believe that this custom was more common place in Northern European
cultures. In fact, it is quoted in Saxo
Grammaticus, History of the Danes, circa 1200 CE; “They put toughness before
allure, aimed at conflicts instead of kisses, tasted blood, not lips, sought
the clash of arms rather than the arm’s embrace, fitted to weapons hand which
should have been weaving, desired not the couch but the kill, and those could
have appeased with looks they attack with lances.” (Killings)
Women
in Norse Sagas are often times depicted as strong-headed, proud, independent
and vindictive. There are numerous
instances of women encouraging the men to take revenge for family honor. There even instances of the women taking
revenge themselves. An example of this
can be found in Njals Saga in the story about Hallgerd and Gunnar. However, women were usually in no danger of
being killed themselves due to honor.
The reason was that laying hand on a woman not only damaged a man’s
honor and reputation but also that of his family. (Dasent)
In
Norse sagas marriages were often political alliance. The law did not require that the woman give
her consent. However, it was normal
practices for the fathers or male family members to consult the women concerning
these marriages. Furthermore, in the
sagas were women were forced into marriages it usually ended badly. It usually ended in divorce and sometimes
death for the unwanted husband.
(Fortney)
A
woman’s rights were protected by bringing a dowry with her into a
marriage. The woman was allowed to keep
the dowry in the event of a divorce. In
fact, it was not uncommon in the sagas for a woman to be married and divorced
numerous times. (Fortney)
The
“Nibelungenlied” has strong female characters worthy of exploring. Furthermore,
it is beneficial to compare and contrast the gender roles in the Nibelungenlied with The Saga of the Volsungs, the Scandinavian version of this German
heroic epic. Each version has examples
of strong female characters and both stories express women’s roles in slightly different
ways. The variation in which women’s
roles are expressed in the Nibelungenlied
compared with The Saga of the Volsungs
is due to the fact that the Scandinavian version has less Christian influence.
At
first glance, time and culture do not seem to be a reason for the differences
in gender roles since both versions were written approximately the same time
from cultures with similar world views. The Nibelungenlied
is a medieval German epic poem, written in Middle-High German in the early
thirteenth century. The German poem is a mixture of Norse and Teutonic
Mythology. The Saga of the Volsungs is a thirteenth century Icelandic text
based on Viking Age Poems and Norse Mythology. Both are written by unknown
authors and concern myths and the early history of the kingdom of Burgundy. Additionally, both versions derived from older
sources from the early migration period.
The
differences in gender roles in both texts is worthy of exploration. It would
appear that The Saga of the Volsungs
remained truer to its pagan roots. This is not only true concerning women’s roles
but in other areas of the story as well. The Nibelungenlied on the other hand has more of a Christian culture
influence concerning the roles of women, with only slight indications to the
story’s pagan origin. This makes sense in light of Germany being converted to
Christianity long before Scandinavia. Scandinavia long held onto pagan customs
and beliefs after the rest of Europe converted to Christianity, with Iceland
being the last holdout of these social norms.
Compare
the character Brynhilde in the Saga of
the Volsungs to Brynhilde in the Nibelungenlied. I In
the Saga of the Volsungs she was a Valkyries, a semi-divine female warrior in
Norse pagan cosmology. Brynhilde is the
queen of Iceland in the Nibelungenlied.
This is fitting since Iceland was the last holdout of Paganism in Europe
and was the last to convert to
Christianity. Brynhild’s character in
both versions of the Saga is symbolic of the strong role or status of women in
pre-Christianized Europe. Intentional or
unintentional the symbolism still stands on its own merit.
Although
The Nibelungenlied is watered down
version of the Saga of the Volsungs due to the influence of Christianity, its
pagan origins have risen like phoenix.
Most would make the case that the Nibelungenlied
is one of the most influential Germanic Epics.
Many would say that J.R.R Tolkien was heavily influence by this work
when he composed his Lord of the Rings
trilogy. However, Tolkien was equally
influenced by the Saga of the Volsungs as well.
The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun was
written by J.R.R. Tolkien before he wrote The
Hobbit and the Lord of the
Rings. This work is not a
translation but closely associated poems using modern English fitted to the Old
Norse metre with over five hundred stanzas.
J.R.R. Tolkien wrote these poems while he was the professor of Anglo-Saxon
studies at Oxford. He used various Norse
poems, literature, and myths when creating his poems. In this way he followed the formula and
tradition used by Norse skaldic poets from ancient times through the Middle
Ages. J.R.R. Tolkien’s poems were not
published until after his death by his son Christopher Tolkien under the title The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun. (Tolkien)
The
fact that Tolkien did not directly translate the Saga of the Volsungs explains some of the minor differences in The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun. For example,
The Legend of Sigurd of Gudrun begins
with the Norse creation myth whereas the Saga
of the Volsungs does not. However,
this does not diminish The Legend of
Sigurd and Gudrun as a valuable text to study. Especially, when studying the influence of
Norse Literature on J.R.R. Tolkien the author.
The overall story is basically the same in the Saga of the Volsungs and The
Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun. However,
it is interesting to note when discussion Tolkien’s version that the sagas are
a living entity. They are evolving with
every generation that chooses to study and re-tell their stories. (Tolkien)
Both
the Saga of the Volsungs and The
Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun
prove useful when exploring the manner in which women of Northern Europe
exerted their influence in the 13th century and prior. First, they are both related to the Icelandic
version of the German saga The
Nibelungenlied, which is the main focus of this paper. There are many similarities between the
Icelandic and German versions. Although The
Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun by
J.R.R. is another rendition of the Saga of the Volsungs, its value is
added by demonstrating the scope of influence the Saga of the Volsungs has
had on even more modern literature.
Furthermore, there is greater understanding gained when utilizing more
than just one interpretation of the original saga. Finally, both sources combined together prove
useful in exploring the roles of women in Northern Europe and religious
paradigms that influences these roles.
As
previously mentioned The Saga of the
Volsungs is similar to the Nibelungenlied
but with more Pagan elements. It was
written by an unknown author in Iceland in the thirteenth century. Like the Nibelungenlied,
The Saga of the Volsungs tells a tale
of heroes, romance, deception, revenge, and murder. This theme repeats itself through several
generations; tell the heroic and tragic story of two families, the Volsungs and
Gjukungs. The Saga of the Volsungs can be divided into three parts. The first part of the saga is concerned with
the ancestors of the saga’s main hero, Sigurd.
The second part of the saga is about Sigurd himself. The third part of the saga deals with
Sigurd’s wife and her family. The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun only differ
were mentioned in this paper. Finally,
there is much symbolism that can be drawn from The Saga of the Volsungs related the roles and influence women
exert in Northern Europe. Especially,
when compare and contrasted with the Nibelungenlied.
(Byock)
(Tolkien) (Hatto)
The Saga of the Volsungs begins with the
character Sigi, who is a son of the Norse God Odin. Sigi kills another man’s thrall, Bredi, out
jealousy over his hunting prowess.
Killing another man’s slave caused Sigi to become an outlaw and caused
him to be banished from the land. However,
he was watched over by his father Odin and led to Hunland. This Pagan aspect along with many others is
absent in the Nibelungenlied. (Byock) (Hatto) (Tolkien)
In
Hunland Sigi became king and in time had a son named Rerir. During his long reign Sigi made many enemies
including his brother-in-laws. Sigi was
killed in his old age by his wife’s brother while his son Rerir was away. Interestingly enough fratricide by in-laws is
a recurrent theme throughout the Saga of
the Volsungs. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Upon
his return Rerir reclaimed the throne and married. Rerir exceed his great father as a king, in
combat, and bravery. He avenged his
father by killing his uncles and other enemies.
However, he had difficulty producing an heir with his wife. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Rerir
and his wife prayed to the Norse Goddess Frigg when they had difficulty having
children. This element is absent from
the Nibelungenlied version and is indicative
of the important the life giving role of the female. Frigg convinced Odin to
help the couple. Odin sent one of his
Wish- Maidens, otherwise known as Valkyries, with magic apples. The wish-maiden Hljod in the form of a crow
dropped the apples in Rerir’s lap. Rerir
ate an apple, shared it with his wife, and soon she was pregnant with their
child. There is much symbolism here that
is lost in the Nibelungenlied version
of the Saga. A mortal female continued
the family line of the hero, a female goddess influenced the chief male deity,
and a female Valkyrie projected the magic that made life. (Byock)(Tolkien)Hatto)
Rerir,
who was fighting a war fell ill and died.
His wife was pregnant for six winters.
Rerir’s wife asked that the baby be cut out of her womb before she
died. Their son was named Volsung and
was born almost the size of a man.
Volsung was great in size and strength.
He succeeded as ruler of Hunland becoming even more powerful than his
father. The sacrifice of the female to create the man hero is only mentioned in
the more Pagan version of the Saga. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Volsung
married the previously mentioned wish-maid, Hljod. Together they had ten sons, the eldest named
Sigmund, and one daughter, Signy. Around
a tree named Branstok Volsung had his palace built. It was built so the trunk of the tree was in
the palace. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Siggeir,
the king of Guatland, asked to marry Signy. Signy reluctantly married Siggeir at the
insistence of her father, Volsung. This
episode is only in the Volsung
version but both Sagas have examples of females having the final say on who
they marry. She had a foreboding of what
was to come. Odin attended to the
wedding banquet disguised as an elderly, one-eyed man wearing a cape and
hood. Disguised as an uninvited
stranger, he plunged a magic sword into Branstock and made a challenge that
whoever pulled out the sword could have it.
Everyone tried to pull it out but only Sigmund, the youngest son of
Volsung, was able to pull the sword out.
Siggeir wanted the sword and offered to buy it but Sigmund disdainfully
refused his offer. (Byock)
(Tolkien)(Hatto)
Siggeir
was insulted by Sigmund rejection. He
jealously coveted the sword and conspired against Sigmund. Three months after the wedding Siggeir hosted
the Volsungs in Gautland. In Gautland
Siggeir betrayed the Volsungs and had his army attack them. King Volsung was killed and all of his son’s
were captured, becoming prisoners of King Siggeir. (Byock)
Signy
convinced her husband that it was better to torture her brothers in restraining
stocks in the woods, allowing them to die slowly instead of killing them
quickly. Every night for nine nights one
of the Volsung brothers was devoured by a huge she-wolf. This continued until only Sigmund remained. Signy had honey smeared on Sigmund’s face and
mouth. When the she-wolf came for
Sigmund she started to lick the honey instead of immediately devouring
him. Sigmund opened his mouth and let
the she-wolf like inside his mouth. He
then bit the she-wolf’s tongue using its strength as it resisted to break the
restraining stocks and killed the she-wolf in the process. The Volsung version
demonstrates that rulers were influenced by their women albeit sometimes in a
passive manner. This part of the story
could also be taken to honor the guile of women concerning stratagem. Also, the she-wolf represents the wild, uncontrollable
feminine power in nature. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Siggeir was convinced that all the Volsungs
were dead, including Sigmund. However,
Sigmund lived in the forest literally underground and was aided by his sister
Signy. Signy had two sons with Siggeir
and sent each of them in turn to live with Sigmund to help him avenge the death
of their family members. Sigmund tested
each of the boy’s courage having them knead flour which had something alive in
it. Sigmund told his sister that each
boy was unsuitable to help him seek revenge.
Signy had Sigmund kill each of the boys because they were weak and
lacked the courage to help them seek revenge.
Signy realized none of her sons with Siggeir would be strong enough to
help Sigmund seek revenge. Therefore,
Signy traded shapes with a beautiful sorceress and slept with Sigmund. Later, without telling Sigmund he was the
father, she had a son named Sinfjotli. Although, this part of the story, only
in the Pagan Volsung version, does
not mesh with modern morality it does demonstrate the strong power women
possessed. They were viewed to posses
the powers to give life as well as take it.
Furthermore, women were movers and shaker in enacting family
revenge. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Signy
sent Sinfjotli to live with Sigmund, who at eleven was already as large and as
strong as a man. Sigmund tested the boy
in the same manner as Signy’s other sons.
However, this time Sinfjotli passed the test and proved he was worthy to
aid Sigmund in seeking revenge. Sigmund
told Sinfjotli about Siggier’s betrayal and the boy agreed to help. Sigmund trained the boy and prepared for the
time when they were to enact their vengeance. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Sigmund
and Sinfjotli tried to sneak into Siggier’s palace and kill him. However, Siggier’s two remaining children
discovered them and alarmed their father to their presence. Signy wanted Sigmund to kill them but he
refused to kill anymore of her children.
Sinfjotli, on the other hand, had no issues with his mother’s request
and did not hesitate to kill his siblings.
(Byock) (Tolkien)
Sigmund
and Sinfjotli were captured and buried in a barrow up to their necks back to
back by Siggier’s men. However, Signy
managed to get Sigmund’s magic sword to him before they were buried. Sigmund and Sinfjotli used the sword to dig
themselves free from the barrow. Once
free they set Siggier’s palace on fire while he and his men slept. Signy remained in the palace to die with the
husband she hated because of the children she had brother and son kill. However, before she did she revealed that
Sinfjotli was Sigmund’s son. (Byock)
(Tolkien)
Sigmund
returned to Hunland with his son Sinfjotli and re-established a Volsung
kingdom. Sigmund married Borghild and
had two children, Helgi and Hamund.
Helgi fought many battles and won his own kingdom. However, Borghild was jealous of her
step-son’s glory and conspired to kill him.
She tricked Sinfjotli into drinking poisoned wine. Borghild was banished from Hunland for killing
her step-son. Once again the more Pagan Volsung version demonstrates that women
were movers and shakers of events. Also, it says a great deal concerning the role
of women in Northern Europe that Borghild was banished and not killed for this
heinous crime. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Despite
being much older than the other suitors, Sigmund competed for and won the love
of a new wife, Hjordis. This caused a
war because one of the suitor kings, Lyngi refused to give up Hjordis. Due to
the God Odin’s interference, Sigmund fell in battle and his magic sword was
shattered. However, his pregnant wife
found Sigmund mortally wound and was instructed to save the shattered sword so
that their son could have it forge into a new sword. (Byock) (Tolkien)
Hjordis
fled to and married Alf, the son of King Hjalprek of Denmark. Hjordis gave birth to Sigmund son and named
him Sigurd. Alf raised Sigurd as his own
son and his family saw to his every need.
Sigurd like the rest of the men in his family grew rapidly in both size
and strength. (Byock)
(Tolkien)
Sigurd
had his magic sword re-forged by Regin and avenge his father’s death. He then killed a mighty dragon named Fafnir
to fulfill his end of the bargain for Regin re-forging his sword. Fafnir had a treasure that Sigurd and Regin
were supposed to share. However, while
Sigurd was cooking the dragon’s heart for Regin, he tested it with his finger
to see if it was done and put his fingers in his mouth. When he did this he could understand the
language of birds and they told him of Regin’s plan to betray him. Sigurd killed Regin, ate the dragon heart,
and kept all the treasure himself including a magic ring called Andvaranaut. (Byock) (Tolkien)
At the
advice of the birds, Sigurd sought out Brynhild. Brynhild was a Valkyrie punished by Odin for
disobedience. She was made to sleep on a
mountaintop encircled by flames until a mortal was brave enough to ride through
the flame came and awakened her. Sigurd
rode through the flame and woke Brynhild.
They fell in love but Sigurd had to leave. Brynhild told Sigurd she would sleep in the
Ring of Fire until he returned. Sigurd
gave the magic ring Andvaranaut to Brynhild as a token of his love until he
returned. (Byock)
(Tolkien)
Sigurd
traveled to the Gjukungs kingdom ruled by King Gjuki. King Gjuki was married to Grimhild and they
had three sons that were named Gunnar, Hogni, and Guttorm. They also had a daughter named Gudrun who
fell in love with Sigurd. However,
Sigurd was in love with Brynhilde. The
Gjukungs were so impress with Sigurd’s prowess that they want to make him apart
of the family and forego the possibility that he would ever be an
adversary. Grimhild tricked Sigurd into
drinking a potion that made him forget Brynhilde. Having no memory of Brynhild, Sigurd fell in
love with and married Gudrun. Thus
Sigurd and Brynhilde got married and had a son named Sigmund and a daughter
named Svanhild. Sigurd swore an oath to
Gunnar, helping him win many wars and bringing glory to the Gjukungs. (Byock)
(Tolkien)
Gunnar
sought to marry Brunhild at the urging of his mother Grimhild. However, he needed Sigurd’s help since he was
no hero. They used a potion made by
Grimhild to exchange shapes. Sigurd once
again rode through the flames and woke Brynhild but this time in the guise of
Gunnar. It is important to note that
The Nibelungenlied tells a different
version of this event. As previously
mentioned, in the Nibelungenlied
Brynhild is the Queen of Iceland. In the
German version of the Saga, Siegfried (Sigurd) helps Gunther (Gunnar) best
Brynhild in a test of strength and skill through the use of a magic cloak. I believe there is in intentional and
unintentional symbolism in this detail.
Both versions demonstrate female strength. However, in the less Pagan Nibelungenlied Brynhild is a queen not a
common woman and not a semi divine being.
There is further symbolism in that she loses her great strength when she
loses her virginity to her husband Gunther, once again being tricked and
overcome by Siegfried. In both versions,
she reluctantly agreed to marry Gunnar/Gunther.
Three nights Sigurd slept with Brynhild disguised as Gunnar but placed
his sword between them. Also, Sigurd
replaced the magic ring Andvaranaut with one from Gunnar. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
After
the wedding of Gunnar and Brynhild, the potion Grimhild gave to Sigurd started
to wear off. He now realized too late
that he had broken the vow he made to Brynhilde on top of the mountain. However, Sigurd was unable to do anything
since Brynhild was now married to Gunnar.
To make matters worse Sigurd made the mistake of telling Gudrun how he
helped Gunnar. He also made the tragic
mistake of giving the ring, Andvaranaut, to Gudrun. This event is similar in
both versions. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
One
day while swimming, Gudrun and Brynhild argued over whose husband was
greater. Gudrun revealed to Brynhild
that it was actually Sigurd in disguise that leaped the flames. Brynhild would not believe Gudrun until she
showed her the ring, Andvaranaut. The influence women had over events is
demonstrated in both versions of the Saga.
(Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Brynhild
had never stopped loving Sigurd.
Furthermore, she was enraged that she had been tricked. Brynhild could not be comforted by
anyone. Sigurd let her know that he had
been deceived into forgetting her.
Nothing he said would comfort her.
She would not be consoled even when he offered to leave Gudrun and make
her his wife. In fact, she refused the
offer. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Brynhild
wanted revenge against Sigurd and the Gjukungs.
She falsely accused Sigurd of have sex with her when he was disguised as
Gunnar. Gunnar decided to have Sigurd
killed. He convinced his younger brother,
Guttorm, to do the deed since he had not sworn an oath to Sigurd. Guttorm mortally wounded Sigurd in sleep but
was killed by the hero as he tried to run away. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Both
Gudrun and Brynhild were grief stricken at the death of Sigurd. Brynhild told Gunnar that she lied to him to
have Sigurd killed. At the funeral pyre,
Brynhild ordered the death of Sigurd’s son, Sigmund. Unlike the more Christian influenced version
Brynhilde wielded the power to execute Sigurd’s son. Brynhild then killed herself, asking that she
be laid next to Sigurd, whom she never stopped loving. (Byock) (Tolkien)(Hatto)
Gudrun
did not want to live with her family anymore and left. She stayed with Sigurd’s step-father King Alf
for many years. King Atli, the brother
of Brynhild, sought to marry Gudrun. The
Gjukungs agreed out of fear of retribution for Brynhild’s death. However, it took deception in the form of
another potion from Grimhild for Gudrun to agree. Only after Gudrun had married and had two
sons with Atli did her memory and grief returned. (Byock)
(Tolkien)
Atli
wanted Sigurd’s treasure that should have gone to Gudrun and planned a trap by
inviting Gunnar and his brother Hogni to a feast in his kingdom. Gudrun tried to warn her brothers but the
message got distorted. They decide to go
but not before sinking the treasure in the Rhine and swearing an oath never to
reveal the location of the treasure. (Byock) (Tolkien)
When
the Gunnar, Hogni, and their small band of followers arrived Atli demands the
treasure but Gunnar refused. Atli’s men
attack the Gjukungs who fought fiercely and nobly. Gudrun even takes up arms and assisted her
brothers to no avail. In the end they
are captured by Atli’s men. Both Gunnar
and Hogni were tortured and eventually killed but neither revealed the location
of the treasure. (Byock)
(Tolkien)(Hatto)
Gudrun
wanted revenge for her brothers’ death.
She held a huge funeral feast for her brothers and Atli’s men. At this feast Atli and his men became very
drunk. She used this opportunity to kill
the two sons she had with Atli. She
served their blood mixed in wine and their roasted hearts to Atli and his
men. Gudrun told Atli what she had done
and stabbed him to death. Then with the
help of her nephew she set the hall on fire killing the quest inside. (Byock)
Gudrun
did not want to live anymore and tried to throw herself in the sea. However, King Jonakr saved her and convinced
her to be his wife. She gave him three
sons named Hadmir, Sorli, and Erp. She
also had her daughter, Svanhild, come live with her and their new family. (Byock)
(Tolkien)
A king
named Jormunrek wanted to marry Svanhild and sent his son, Randver, to persuade
her. However, Jormunrek’s counselor,
Bikki, gave the king’s son the treacherous advice to marry Svanhild himself. Bikki lied and told Jormunrek that his son
had betrayed him and that Svanhild was unfaithful. Based on the lie told by Bikki, Jormunrek
executed his own son. Jormunrek order
that Svanhild be trampled by wild horses.
However, the horses refused to do so because of Svanhild’s fierce eyes. Only when her head was covered did the horses
trample and kill Svanhild. (Byock)
When
Gudrun heard of Svanhild death, she asked her three sons to avenge her
death. Erp did not agree to help so
Sorli and Hadmir killed him. Sorli and
Hadmir attack King Jormunrek and cut off his hands and feet. However, before they could kill him they were
driven back by the king’s men. The armor
worn by Sorli and Hadmir made them impervious to swords, spears, and
arrows. The God Odin once again makes an
appearance in the story and advices Jormunrek to have his men stone Sorli and
Hadmir. The king’s men stone Sorli and
Hadmir and this ends the Saga of the
Volsungs. (Byock)
(Tolkien)
The Nibelungenlied Sage ended with the
battle of Nibelungs and Etzel’s (Atli) army.
Furthermore, unlike the Volsung
version, Kriemhild (Gudrun) sought revenge against her brothers for the death
of her husband. In the Saga of the Volsung this female character sought revenge against Atli for
killing her brothers. Furthermore, it is
curious that she is villainized as a she devil only the Nibelungenlied version of the Saga for acts of revenge. Much can be implied concerning the roles of
women in Pagan and Christian society in Northern Europe based on this
difference.
This
essay provided a study and an analysis of The
Nibelungenlied and women’s roles in Northern Europe. An interdisciplinary view and approach was
used in this analysis. The Nibelungenlied was discussed from
the view point of following three disciplines; history, religion, and gender
studies. The gender roles in the Nibelungenlied and The Saga of the Volsungs were compared and contrasted. Furthermore, this paper investigated the way
gender roles are portrayed in both The
Nibelungenlied and The Saga of the
Volsungs and the religious cultural paradigms that influenced both. The focus was narrowed to the discussion of
Germanic people of Europe in the 13th Century and prior that
inhabited what is now comprises the modern
day lands of Germany, Great Britain, and Scandinavia, to include Iceland. The case was presented that the role of women
in Northern Pagan Europe was one of relevant power, influence, and status. The argument that social norms of the Northern
European Heathen never completely disappeared was supported. In summary, how women exerted their influence
in both Pagan and Christianized Northern Europe was discussed.
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